Paper on teaching

The Effect of Focal Attention on Second Language Learning

Abstract

A review of many SLA studies conducted in recent decades reveals that attempts are usually made to draw students' attention to noticing the target language. The theoretical base of these studies is that some form of attention to linguistic data is crucial for second language learning to take place.

This paper explores the effects of attention and consciousness on second language acquisition. The aim of this article is to assess whether the focally attentive learners outperform those who are not attentive to the target language items. To find answer to this question, two groups of 15 participants was selected, participated in the experiment, and were tested via a close passage listening test. The data was analyzed through a t-test which resulted in rejecting the null hypothesis of the study and proving the effect of noticing on enhancing second language acquisition.

Introduction

One of the considerable issues in learning, particularly in language learning, is the psychological factors. According to Brown (2000) these factors include self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, anxiety, empathy, and so on. One of the most important and controversial issues among them is 'noticing' that has been referred to as focal attention in psychology which is a controlled and conscious process. Linguistic information can be processed in a number of different ways. Tasks may be done through either controlled processing, particularly new tasks which need more attention to be paid, or automatic processing, used for tasks which tend to be unconscious and practiced (Brown, 2000; Carrol, 2008). So, controlled processing has got priority over automatic processing. Recently, a number of researchers (Gass, 1997; Johnson, 1996; Skehan, 1998; Robinson, 1997; Schmidt, 2001; to name just a few) have focused on efforts of bringing an information-processing orientation to the SLA field and worked on exploring the role of awareness and attention in language acquisition.

According to Schmidt (1995) "the noticing hypothesis states that what learners notice in input is what becomes intake for learning." Moreover, based on the model of 'the process of learning implicit knowledge', proposed by Ellis, noticing is a medium between input and memory system. In spite of the plethora of research on the role of noticing in SLA, the problem is that how we can influence noticing to enhance learning. This study aims to probe into the effect that in-class attention may have on improving second language learning.

Research question: Do the focally attentive participants outperform the members of the control group?
Taking this question into account the research hypothesis is: focal attention has no effect on second language acquisition.

Preliminary remarks

1. Attention and second language acquisition:

Some level of attention is what is required for language acquisition to take place, and it is what most researchers assent to. However, the role of noticing in second language acquisition has always been controversial and litigious.

Schmidt (1990) claims that "consciousness, in the sense of awareness of the form of input at the level of noticing, is necessary to subsequent second language acquisition". Ellis (1994,1997), Lewis (1993), Robinson (1997), and Gass (1998) accord with Schmidt in that noticing is a requirement for input to be processed and converted into intake. Kihlstorm (1984) suggests that consciousness and short-term memory are the same; accordingly, Schmidt (1990) concludes, "if consciousness is indeed equivalent to short-term store, this amounts to a claim that storage without conscious awareness is impossible".

Some other second language acquisition researchers such as Tomlin and Villa (1994) claim that attention consists of three components: alertness, orientation, and detection, an unconscious process in second language acquisition.

Schmidt (1994) identifies four aspects of consciousness: intention, learners' deliberateness to attend to the stimulus, attention, the detection of a stimulus, awareness, learners may or may not be aware that they have acquired a new structure, and control, the extent to which the learners' output is controlled.

2. Influences on attention:

Noticing is a prerequisite for acquisition (Schmidt, 1990, 1993; Robinson, 1995 inter alia). There are many factors that may influence noticing. For example, Bardovi-Harling (1995) exemplifies the importance of learners' communicative need by showing that past perfect tense instruction could be effective if the learners were ready and felt the communicative need for the form.

On the basis of a claim proposed by Izumi-Bigelow (2000), underlining would be an advantageous factor to influence noticing. They believe that, "they have an advantage over postexposure measures of noticing because they allow more direct access to learners' ongoing internal processes and minimize possible memory loss".
Schmidt (1990) claims that noticing in the input can be affected by the following factors:

Instruction: Skehan (1998) and Schmidt (1990) propose that instruction may enhance noticing of language features.
Frequency: the more frequent a language feature, the greater the likelihood for noticing exist.
Perceptual salience: a language item that is more prominent will have a greater possibility to be noticed (Skehan, 1998).
Skill level: it indicates individuals' ability and readiness to notice new forms.
Task demands: an instructional task can be designed to make learners notice features necessary to carry out that task (Schmidt, 1990). The amount of noticing is dependent on the level of processing the task demands; whether it is low, for exchanging known information, or high, for tasks which require abstract decision-making ( Skehan, 1998).

Method

To conduct this study 30 participants (two classes of 15 students), whose ages ranged from 16 to late 20s, were chosen. They all were Persian speakers studying English as a foreign language in an institute. Besides, they were at the intermediate level of proficiency.

To examine the research hypothesis, in one of the two classes the teacher employed Immediate Response Technique, the teacher was expected to ask sudden questions about the material being taught and the students were required to answer immediately, and also the students were asked to underline those parts of the passage which seemed necessary to them, based on the claim proposed by Izumi-Bigelow (2000), which considers underlining as a measure of noticing.

Then all the subjects in the control group and the experimental group participated in a listening close passage test which was based on the materials of the book. The test contained a passage with 10 words omitted. The participants were supposed to listen to the tape and fill in the blanks. The data of the study has been analyzed via a t-test.

Results and Discussion

According to the research hypothesis the supposition was that noticing as focal attention on the learners' part would not enhance the acquisition of the second language. The results of the test are displayed in the following tables:

Xe X̄ Xe - X̄ (Xe - X̄)² Ʃ(Xe - X̄)²
20


16.4 3.6 12.96


153.6
20 3.6 12.96
20 3.6 12.96
20 3.6 12.96
18 1.6 2.56
18 1.6 2.56
18 1.6 2.56
18 1.6 2.56
16 -0.4 0.16
16 -0.4 0.16
14 -2.4 5.76
14 -2.4 5.76
12 -4.4 19.36
12 -4.4 19.36
10 -6.4 40.96

Table 1: Results of the experimental group


Xc X̄ Xc - X̄ (Xc - X̄)² Ʃ(Xc - X̄)²
20


13.6 6.4 40.96


145.6
18 4.4 19.36
18 4.4 19.36
16 2.4 5.76
14 0.4 0.16
14 0.4 0.16
14 0.4 0.16
14 0.4 0.16
12 -1.6 2.56
12 -1.6 2.56
12 -1.6 2.56
10 -3.6 12.96
10 -3.6 12.96
10 -3.6 12.96
10 -3.6 12.96

Table 2: Results of the control group

Se=√((Ʃ(Xe-X ̄)²)/(n-1))=3.312

Sc=√((Ʃ(Xc-X ̄)²)/(n-1))=3.224

S(X ̄e-X ̄c)=√((Se/√Ne))²+(Sc/√Nc)^2=1.192

T obs=(X ̄e-X ̄c)/(S(X ̄e-X ̄c))=2.348

T crit=2.048
Df =28

T obs > T crit

Test statistics indicate that the mean score of the experimental group is higher than that of the control group. Furthermore, the observed T is greater than the critical T. So, these results rejecting the research hypothesis, prove that in-class attention will have impact on second language acquisition. Thus the analysis confirms that participants demonstrating higher level of noticing would outperform those who do not pay enough attention to the material being taught.

The finding of the research concurs with Schmidt (1995), who postulated a positive role for noticing in converting input into intake. It is also in accordance with Ellis (1993, 1997), Lewis (1993), and Gass (1998) who considered noticing as a requirement for input to become intake. It should be noted that this result is in contradiction with Robinson (1997) who found no difference among groups with regard to awareness at the level of noticing. Moreover, it opposes the claim proposed by Tomlin and Villa (1994) that consider attention as an unconscious process in second language acquisition.

As a consequence, consciousness at the level of noticing correlates positively with progress in second language learning.

Conclusion

This investigation has attempted to empirically test the claim that noticing is a requirement for second language acquisition. The results might support Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis and other researchers who claim that noticing is important for input to be converted into intake. To enhance subjects' noticing, Immediate Response Technique and also Izumi-Bigelow's underlining procedure were used.

Investigating the effect of attention on SLA and the available techniques to enhance noticing can be fruitful in finding better policies for planning and codifying models of classroom teaching that make students attentive to the input. Moreover, teachers can make use of the techniques mentioned in the present study to draw their students' attention on the teaching material.


Results of the present investigation should be interpreted within the context of its methodology limitations. This was a small scale study involving only a small number of learners. Furthermore, problems of conducting the test negatively influenced the validity of the results. Accordingly, further research needs to investigate the effects of various conditions on learners with different proficiency levels.

References

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